Self-Study Tasks.REMEMBER THAT WHAT YOU SAY IS USUALLY LESS IMPORTANT THAN HOW YOU SAY IT.
воскресенье, 12 мая 2019 г.
Adverbs
An adverb is a wordthatmodifies a verb, adjective, anotheradverb,determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. Adverbstypicallyexpressmanner,place,time,frequency,de-gree,level of certainty,etc.,answeringquestionssuch as how?, in whatway?, when?, where?, andto whatextent?. Thisfunction is calledtheadverbialfunction,andmay be realised by singlewords(adverbs) or by multi-wordexpressions (adverbial phrasesandadverbial clauses).
Adverbsaretraditionallyregarded as one of theparts of speech.However,modernlinguistsnotethattheterm"adverb"hascome to be used as a kind of "catchall"category,used to classifywordswithvariousdifferenttypes of syntacticbehavior,notnecessarilyhavingmuch in commonexceptthatthey do notfitintoany of theotheravailablecategories(noun,adjective, preposition,etc.)
Functions
TheEnglishwordadverbderives(throughFrench)fromLatinadverbium, fromad ("to"),verbum("word","verb"),andthenominalsuffix -ium. Thetermimpliesthattheprincipalfunction of adverbs is to act as modifiers of verbs or verb phrases.[1] Anadverbused in thiswaymayprovideinformationaboutthemanner,place,time,frequency,certainty, or othercircumstances of theactivitydenoted by theverb or verbphrase.Someexamples:
Shesangloudly (loudlymodifiestheverbsang, indicatingthemanner of singing)
We left it here (heremodifiestheverbphraseleft it, indicatingplace)
I workedyesterday (yesterdaymodifiestheverbworked, indicatingtime)
I boughtonlythefruit (onlymodifiesthenounphrasethefruit)
Shedrove us almost to thestation (almostmodifiestheprepositionalphraseto thestation)
Certainly we need to act (certainlymodifiesthesentence as a whole)
Adverbsarethusseen to perform a widerange of modifyingfunctions.Themajor exception is thefunction of modifier of nouns, which is performedinstead by adjectives(compareshesangloudlywithherloudsingingdisturbed me; heretheverb sang is modified by theadverbloudly, whereasthenounsinging is modified by theadjectiveloud). However, as seenabove,adverbsmaymodifynounphrases, and sothetwofunctionsmaysometimes be superficiallyverysimilar:
Evencamelsneed to drink
Evennumbersaredivisible by two
Thewordeven in thefirstsentence is an adverb,since it is an "external"modifier, modifyingcamels as a nounphrase(compareeventhesecamels...), whereasthewordeven in thesecondsentence is an adjective,since it is an "internal"modifier,modifyingnumbers as a noun(comparetheseevennumbers...). It is nonethelesspossibleforcertainadverbs to modify a noun; in Englishtheadverbfollowsthenoun insuchcases,[1] as in:
Thepeopleherearefriendly
Theshowfeaturesdancesgalore
There is a shortageinternationally of proteinforanimalfeeds
Adverbscansometimes be used as predicativeexpressions; in Englishthisapplies especially to adverbs of location:
Yourseat is there.
Whenthefunction of an adverb is performed by an expressionconsisting of morethan oneword, it is called an adverbial phrase or adverbial clause, or simply an adverbial.
Formation and comparison
In English, adverbs of manner(answeringthequestionhow?) areoftenformed by adding -ly to adjectives.Otherlanguagesoftenhavesimilarmethodsforderivingadverbsfromadjectives (French, forexample,usesthesuffixment), or elseusethe sameformforbothadjectivesandadverbs.Manyotheradverbs,however,arenotrelated to adjectives in thisway;theymay be derivedfromotherwords or phrases, or may be singlemorphemes. Examples of suchadverbs in Englishincludehere,there,together,yesterday,aboard,very,almost, etc.
Wherethemeaningpermits,adverbsmayundergocomparison, takingcomparativeandsuperlativeforms. In Englishthis isusuallydone by addingmoreandmostbeforetheadverb (moreslowly,mostslowly), althoughthereare a fewadverbsthat takeinflectedforms,such as well, forwhichbetterandbestareused.
Formoreinformationabouttheformationanduse of adverbs in English,seeEnglish grammar § Adverbs. Forotherlanguages,see§ In specific languagesbelow,andthearticles on individuallanguagesandtheirgrammars.
Adverbs as a "catch-all" category
Adverbsareconsidered a part of speech in traditionalEnglishgrammar,andarestillincluded as a part of speech in grammar taught in schoolsandused in dictionaries.However,moderngrammariansrecognizethatwordstraditionallygroupedtogetheras adverbsserve a number of differentfunctions.Somedescribeadverbs a "catch-all"categorythatincludesallwordsthat donotbelong to one of theotherparts of speech.[2]
A logicalapproach to dividingwordsintoclassesrelies on recognizingwhichwordscan be used in a certaincontext.Forexample,theonlytype of wordthatcan be inserted in thefollowingtemplate to form a grammaticalsentence is a noun:
The_____ is red.(Forexample,"Thehat is red".)
Whenthisapproach is taken, it is seenthatadverbsfallinto a number of differentcategoriesForexample,someadverbscanbe used to modify an entiresentence,whereasotherscannot.Evenwhen a sententialadverbhasotherfunctions,themeaning is oftennotthesame.Forexample, in thesentencesShegavebirthnaturallyandNaturally,shegavebirth, theword naturallyhasdifferentmeanings: in thefirstsentence, as a verb-modifyingadverb, it means"in a naturalmanner",while in thesecondsentence, as a sententialadverb, it meanssomethinglike"ofcourse".
Wordslikeveryaffordanotherexample. We cansayPerry is veryfast, butnotPerryverywontherace. Thesewordscanmodifyadjectivesbutnotverbs. On theotherhand,therearewordslikehereandtherethatcannotmodifyadjectives. We cansayThesocklooksgoodtherebutnotIt is a therebeautifulsock. Thefactthatmanyadverbscan be used in morethanone ofthesefunctionscanconfusetheissue,and it mayseemlikesplittinghairs to saythat a singleadverb is reallytwo or morewordsthatservedifferentfunctions.However,thisdistinctioncan be useful,especiallywhenconsideringadverbslikenaturally thathavedifferentmeanings in theirdifferentfunctions.Rodney Huddlestondistinguishesbetween a wordand alexicogrammatical-word.[3]
Grammariansfinddifficultycategorizingnegatingwords,such as theEnglishnot. Althoughtraditionallylisted as an adverb,thisworddoesnotbehavegrammaticallylikeanyother,and it probablyshould be placed in a class of itsown.[4][5]
In specific languages
In Dutchadverbshavethebasicform of theircorrespondingadjectivesandarenotinflected(thoughtheysometimescanbe compared).
In Germanthetermadverb is differentlydefinedthan in theEnglishlanguage.Germanadverbsform a group of noninflectablewords(though a fewtheycan be compared). An Englishadverb, which is derivedfrom an adjective, is arranged in Germanundertheadjectiveswithadverbialuse in thesentence.Theothersarealsocalledadverbs in the Germanlanguage.
In Scandinavianlanguages,adverbsaretypicallyderivedfromadjectives by addingthesuffix'-t',whichmakes it identical to theadjective'sneuterform.Scandinavianadjectives,likeEnglishones,areinflected in terms of comparison by adding'-ere'/'-are'(comparative) or '-est'/'-ast'(superlative). In inflectedforms of adjectives,the'-t' is absent.Periphrasticcomparison is alsopossible.
In Romance languages, manyadverbsareformedfromadjectives(oftenthefeminineform) by adding'-mente'(Portuguese, Spanish, Galician,Italian) or '-ment' (French, Catalan) (fromLatinmens,mentis: mind,intelligence, or suffix-mentum, result or way of action).Otheradverbsaresingleformswhichareinvariable.
In Romanian, almostalladverbsaresimplythemasculinesingularform of thecorrespondingadjective,onenot able exceptionbeingbine("well") / bun("good").However,therearesomeRomanianadverbsbuiltfromcertainmasculinesingularnounsusingthesuffix"-ește", such as thefollowingones:băieț-ește(boyishly),tiner-ește(youthfully),bărbăt-ește(manly),frăț-ește(brotherly),etc.
Interlinguaalsoformsadverbs by adding'-mente' to theadjective. If an adjectiveends in c, theadverbialending is '-amente'. A fewshort,invariableadverbs,such as ben, "well",andmal, "badly",areavailableandwidelyused.
In Esperanto, adverbsarenotformedfromadjectivesbutaremade by adding'-e'directly to thewordroot.Thus,frombon arederivedbone, "well",andbona, "good".Seealso:special Esperanto adverbs.
In Hungarianadverbsareformedfromadjectives of anydegreethroughthesuffixes-ul/üland-an/endepending on theadjective:szép(beautiful) → szépen(beautifully) or thecomparativeszebb(morebeautiful) → szebben(morebeautifully)
ModernStandardArabicformsadverbs by addingtheindefiniteaccusativeending'-an' to theroot:kathiir-, "many",becomeskathiiran"much".However,Arabicoftenavoidsadverbs by using a cognateaccusativefollowed by an adjective.
Japaneseformsadverbsfromverbaladjectives by adding/ku/(く) to thestem(haya-"rapid"hayai"quick/early",hayakatta"wasquick",hayaku"quickly")andfromnominaladjectives by placing/ni/(に)aftertheadjectiveinstead of thecopula/na/(な) or /no/(の)(rippa"splendid",rippa ni "splendidly").Thederivationsarequiteproductive,butfrom a fewadjectives,adverbsmaynot be derived.
In theCeltic languages, an adverbialform is oftenmade by precedingtheadjectivewith a preposition:go in Irish or gu in Scottish Gaelic, meaning'until'. In Cornish, yn is used,meaning'in'.
In Modern Greek, an adverb is mostcommonlymade by addingtheendings<-α>and/or<ως> to theroot of an adjective.Often,theadverbsformedfrom a commonrootusingeach of theseendingshaveslightlydifferentmeanings.So,<τέλειος>(<téleios>,meaning"perfect"and"complete")yields<τέλεια>(<téleia>,"perfectly")and<τελείως>(<teleíos>,"completely").Notalladjectivescan be transformedintoadverbs by usingbothendings.<Γρήγορος>(<grígoros>,"rapid")becomes<γρήγορα>(<grígora>,"rapidly"),butnotnormally*<γρηγόρως>(*<grigóros>).Whenthe<-ως>ending is usedto transform an adjectivewhosetonalaccent is on thethirdsyllablefromtheend,such as <επίσημος>(<epísimos>,"official"),thecorrespondingadjective is accented on thesecondsyllablefromtheend;compare<επίσημα>(<epísima>)and<επισήμως>(<episímos>),whichbothmean"officially".Therearealsootherendingswithparticularandrestricteduseas <-ί>,<-εί>,<-ιστί>,etc.Forexample,<ατιμωρητί>(<atimorití>,"withimpunity")and<ασυζητητί>(<asyzitití>,"indisputably");<αυτολεξεί>(<autolexeí>"wordforword")and<αυτοστιγμεί>(<autostigmeí>,"in no time");<αγγλιστί>[<anglistí>"inEnglish(language)"]and<παπαγαλιστί>(<papagalistí>,"byrote");etc.
In Latvian, an adverb is formedfrom an adjective by changingthemasculine or feminineadjectiveendings -s and -a to -i."Labs",meaning"good",becomes"labi"for"well".Latvianadverbshave a particularuse in expressionsmeaning"tospeak" or "tounderstand" a language.Ratherthanusethenounmeaning"Latvian/English/Russian",theadverbformedformthesewords is used."Esrunājulatviski/angliski/krieviski"means "I speakLatvian/English/Russian"or,literally, "IspeakLatvianly/Englishly/Russianly". If a noun is required,theexpressionusedmeansliterally"language of theLatvians/English/Russians","latviešu/angļu/krievuvaloda".
In Russian, andanalogously in UkrainianandsomeotherSlavic languages, mostadverbsareformed by removingtheadjectivalsuffices"-ий""-а" or "-е"from an adjective,andreplacingthemwiththeadverbial"-о".Forexample,"швидкий","гарна",and"смачне"(fast,nice,tasty)become"швидко","гарно",and"смачно"(quickly,nicely,tastefully),similarly,"быстрый","хороший"and"прекрасный"(quick,good,wonderful)become"быстро","хорошо","прекрасно"(quickly,well,wonderfully).Anotherwidegroup of adverbsareformed by gluingpreposition to followingobliquecaseform(nowoftendialectical or deprecated): з from+рідкаtherare→зрідкаrarely, на onto+долинуbottom→надолинуdownwards. Aswell,notethatadverbsaremostlyplacedbeforetheverbstheymodify:"Добрийсингарноспіває." (A goodsonsings nicely/well).There is no specificwordorder in EastSlaviclanguages.
In Korean, adverbsarecommonlyformed by replacingthe -다 ending of thedictionaryform of a descriptiveverbwith 게.So, 쉽다 (easy)becomes 쉽게 (easily).Theyarealsoformed by replacingthe 하다 of somecompoundverbswith 히, e.g.안녕하다(peaceful) > 안녕히(peacefully).
In Turkish, thesamewordusuallyserves as adjectiveandadverb:iyibirkız("agoodgirl"),iyianlamak("tounderstandwell).
In Chinese, adverbsend in theword"地(的)", of whichtheEnglishequivalent is "-ly".
In Persian, manyadjectivesandadverbshavethesameformsuch as "خوب","سریع","تند" so there is no obviousway torecognisethemout of context.TheonlyexceptionsareArabicadverbswith a "اً"suffixsuch as "ظاهراً"and"واقعاً".
^Haegeman,Liliane.1995.Thesyntax of negation. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Adverbs is a 2006novel by DanielHandler. It is formatted as acollection of seventeeninterconnectednarrativesfromthepoints of viewof differentpeople in varioussorts of love.Each of thetitles is an adverbsuggestingwhatsort of lovethepeoplearedealingwith.Somepeopleare"wrongly" in love,othersare"briefly" in love,and so on.Thebookfocuseson thewaysthatpeoplefall in love,instead of focusing on whomtheyarein lovewith.
Structure
Adverbs is billed as a novel,but is commonlydescribed by criticsandjournalists as a collection of shortstories.Certainly it breakssome of thetraditionalconventions of thenovelgenre.Thenarrative is driven by half-truthsandintentionallymisleadingstatements.Thepoint of viewshiftsfromstory to story,charactersreappear in unlikelysettings,multiplecharactershavethesamename,andHandlerhimselffrequentlymakesan appearance,not in therole of thenarrator,butapparently as theauthorhimself.
Whilethenarrativesinterlock,theyarenotsequential;andnotallcharacterswhosharethesamenameare in factthesamecharacter -eventhoughtheymayalsosharecertainsimilaraspects of personality orphysicalfeatures.Thenarratoradmits as much:"Attheend of thenovel,it'sJoewho's in thetaxi,falling in lovewithAndrea,although it mightnotbe Andrea, or in anycase it mightnot be thesameAndrea, as Andrea is averycommonname."Handlerreusesseveralnamesformajorcharactersfromearlierworks,primarilyWatch Your Mouth, includingJoe,Steven,andAllison.However,none of there-usednamesappear to be thesamecharactersfromHandler'searlierwork.
Plot summary
In "Immediately," a manleaveshisgirlfriend(Andrea)andfalls in lovewithhishomophobiccabdriver.
In "Obviously," a teenager(Joe)working at a multiplextakesticketsforKickass:TheMoviewhilepiningfortheteenagegirl(Lila)workingtheshiftwithhim.Shehas a boyfriend(Keith).Joementions a friend,Garth,whotravels to SanFrancisco to meetwithhisgirlfriend,Kate.ThisKate is KateGordon,one of Flannery'sfriends in The Basic Eight, who is mentionedhaving a briefrelationshipwith a guynamedGarth in thatnovel.
In "Arguably," a Britishwriter(Helena),who is married to a man(David)whose ex is called'Andrea',needsmoney.
In "Particularly,"HelenaworksforAndrea,whomshe is jealousof.
In "Briefly," a teenager'scrush on hissister'sboyfriend(Keith)hauntshimthroughoutlife.
In "Soundly", a woman(Allison) -- whohas an ex named'Adam' -- spends an eveningoutwithherbestfriend(Lila),who'sdying of a raredisease,andtheybothfocus on whattheirfriendshipmeans,particularlycompared to theirrelationshipswithmen.Theyreminisceabouttheirfriend'Andrea'and an encounterwith a boynamed'Joe'."Allison"and"Lila"bothcrop upagain as characternamesrepeatedlythroughoutthebook.Handler is sometimesclearaboutwhetherhe'sspeakingaboutthesamepeople,andsometimesnot. As in most of thechapters,Handlerhereprovidesonepossibledefinition of love:"[t]his islove, to sitwithsomeoneyou'veknownforever in a placeyou'vebeenmeaning to go,andwatching as theirlifehappens tothemuntilyoustand up andit'stime to go.Youdon'tcareaboutyours.Whyshould it change,theloveyoufeel, no matterhowdeathgoes?".After a conversationwith a womannamedGladys,who is able to makeitemsappearout of thinair,Lilagets acall to come to thehospitalfor a transplant, butthere is a problemwiththeferry;somekind of disasterhasoccurredwhichmeanstheycannotcross to thehospital.Theguyworking at thebooth is called'Tomas'.
In "Frigidly," a pair of detectivescomeslookingfortheSnowQueen(Gladys) in a dinerwhereAndrea is drinking at thecounter. A boy(Mike),whohadbeen a student of Helena, is waiting.
"Collectively" is about a manwhohas a series of randompeople,including a mailcarrierandhisson(Mike),coming to hishouse to declarehowmuchtheylovehim."Isn'tlove a sharing?",asksthenarrator,trying to explainthepostman's(andeveryoneelse's)strangelongingforthehouseowner.Thestoryconcludeswiththemansharingacceptingtheaffection of hisguests by sharing a smoothiewiththem.
In "Symbolically," an aspiringwriter(Tomas)hooks up with a man(Adam)whohascome to film a potentialcatastrophe.Thenextday,themanreturnswithhisgirlfriend(Eddie).
In "Clearly," a youngcouple(AdamandEddie)sneaksawayintothewoodsforsomerisquéoutdoorsex.Aftertheyhaveundressed, an apologetichiker(Tomas)interruptsthemwithnews of an injuredfriend(Steven).Thecoupleattend to thehiker'sneeds,leavingtheirownhanging.
Thefemalecharacter(Eddie) in "Naturally"dates a manwhoturnsout to be a ghost.Whenshediscoversthis,sheendstheirunion.Her ex is called'Joe'.
"Wrongly"features a graduatestudent(Allison)inexplicablydrawn to a colleague(Steven)who'salreadytreatedherbadly.
In "Truly,"DanielHandlerexplainsthegameAdverbs:"Someone is It andleavestheroomandeveryoneelsedecides on anadverb. It returnsandforcespeople to actoutthings in themanner of theword,which is anothernameforthegame.Peopleargueviolently, or makecoffeequickly, andthere'salways a timewhenthealcoholtakesoverandpeoplesuggesthornilyandwe allmustwatch as It makestwopeoplewrithe on thefloor,supposedlydancing or eating or driving a car,untilfinally Itguessestheadverbeveryone'sthinkingof.It's a charade,althoughit'snotmuchlikeCharades.Youplayuntilyougetbored."Handler'sexplanation of Adverbsleads to a discussion of theidentity of charactersacrosschapters:"Nobodykeepsscore,becausethere's no sense in keepingtrack of whateveryone is doing.Youmight as welltracebirdsthrough a book, or follow atotalstrangeryouspotoutsidethewindow of yourcab, or followthecocktailsspillingthemselvesfromthepages of vintagecocktailencyclopedias to leavestainsthroughthisbook, or followthepopsongsthatstick in people'sheads or followthepeoplethemselves,althoughyou'relikely to confusethem, as so manypeople in thisbookhavethesamenames.Youcan'tfollowalltheJoes, or alltheDavidsandAndreas.Youcan'tfollowAdam or Allison or Keith, up to Seattle or down to SanFrancisco or across—threethousandmiles, as thebirdflies—toNewYorkCity,andanywaytheydon'tmatter."
In "NotParticularly,"Helenaawaitsthereturn of herhusband,David.Shethinkshe'scheating on her,becausehe'slefthispassportbehind,butshedoesn'trealizethat(atthattime) he doesn'tneed a passport to travel to Canada.HelenameetsJoeandgets a letteraddressed to Andrea.
In "Often,"Allison is married to a comicwriterandgoes on a cruiseforcomicwriters.ShemeetsKeith.
In "Barely,"Sammovesoutafterherroommate(Andrea)getsinvolvedwithSteven.Theboyacrossthestreet is Mike.
Finally, in "Judgmentally,"JoeavoidsjurydutyandmeetsAndrea,who is driving a cab.